Political Parties, Leadership and Mobilization - State Politics in India | DocShare

State Politics in IndiaChapter Unit

Introduction to Electoral Politics in India

Electoral studies in democratic countries are vital for understanding citizens’ expectations and societal diversity. Elections serve as a mirror to the functioning democracy, allowing us to analyze how societal aspirations evolve over time. In India, electoral politics is a significant and evolving component of political study, encompassing everything from electoral systems to voter behavior. The shift from a one-party dominance system, mainly led by Congress, to a more diverse multi-party system has significantly transformed state and national politics. This transformation is evident in the increased importance of regional parties and the rise of coalition politics. Political parties in India, acting as mediators between the state and the public, are crucial in conveying policies and representing regional and national aspirations. This chapter explores how electoral politics in India has changed over time, especially focusing on regional parties' role in shaping both state and national politics.

Study of State Politics from the Perspective of Elections

Studying electoral politics in a country as diverse as India offers insights into the changing nature of politics at different periods. According to Yogendra Yadav, Indian electoral politics can be categorized into three distinct systems based on voting behavior and political changes:

First Electoral System (1952–1967): During this period, Indian electoral politics was dominated by the Congress party at both the state and national levels. Elections were characterized by one-party dominance, and voters’ choices were more influenced by caste identity than political ideology. The voter’s political identity was closely linked to their caste community rather than party affiliation.
Second Electoral System (1968–1988): This period marked a decline in Congress dominance and the rise of regional parties. Although Congress remained influential, new political alternatives emerged, and the idea of a united opposition became more important. Despite Congress regaining some control in the 1971 elections, the political landscape saw increasing regional party activity, especially with the rise of new candidates from marginalized communities. The inability to form a strong opposition coalition, despite the proliferation of political alternatives, is a significant feature of this period.
Third Electoral System (1989–1999): The role of regional parties became especially significant in national politics during this period. With the entry of caste-based political movements (such as Mandal Commission's recommendations for OBC reservations), religious movements (like the Ram Mandir movement by the BJP), and the economic changes brought about by the LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) reforms, regional parties not only influenced state politics but also played pivotal roles in national coalition governments. The fragmentation of the political system into multiple parties led to the emergence of a "Post-Congress Polity," where voters had multiple political alternatives, reducing Congress's dominance.

Role of Regional Parties in Electoral Politics

Regional parties have played an increasingly significant role in shaping both state and national politics in India. The end of Congress’s dominance opened the door for these regional parties to rise, allowing previously marginalized regional aspirations to gain political representation. These parties, often rooted in specific regional, linguistic, or caste identities, have provided a platform for local issues that were previously neglected by the national parties. The Election Commission of India recognizes regional parties as entities that have a significant base in specific states or regions, and these parties are categorized into national, state, and registered unrecognized parties. Regional parties often emerge when regional identity and issues gain prominence, either due to dissatisfaction with national politics or as a result of cultural, linguistic, or economic needs unique to a region.

Democratic Upsurges and Political Mobilization

Indian electoral politics can be analyzed through three major democratic upsurges that represent key periods of political and electoral change:

The First Democratic Upsurge: This phase witnessed the rise of national political parties that began to play a central role in shaping the political opinion of voters both at the state and central levels. This upsurge was marked by the Congress party's dominance and its central role in electoral politics.
The Second Democratic Upsurge: This period was characterized by the decline of Congress's dominance and the rise of new regional parties. The fragmentation of power across various political parties, including regional ones, signified a shift toward a more decentralized system of governance, wherein regional aspirations and identities began to assert themselves more strongly.
The Third Democratic Upsurge: The most significant change occurred with the entry of caste-based politics, the rise of the BJP and its involvement in the Hindutva agenda, and the introduction of liberal economic policies (LPG reforms). This period marked the rise of coalition politics at the center, as no single party could secure a clear majority on its own. Voters were now presented with a broad array of choices, leading to a more pluralistic and fragmented political environment, epitomized by the "Post-Congress Polity."

Electoral Systems and Voting Behavior in India

The evolution of Indian electoral politics can be better understood through the study of voting behavior and party systems during different periods:

Pre-1967 Voting Behavior: During the period of Congress dominance, voting behavior was largely shaped by caste identities and regional affiliations. Voters' choices were less influenced by political ideologies and more by community-based considerations.
Post-1967 Voting Behavior: As regional parties began to emerge, voting behavior became increasingly tied to caste-based, religious, and regional identities. This change also marked the rise of political pluralism, with voters starting to identify with parties that represented their local or regional concerns.
Post-1989 Voting Behavior: With the rise of coalition politics, voters now had a multitude of choices. The introduction of economic reforms (LPG) and caste-based reservations changed the political landscape significantly. Voters’ preferences were now more fragmented, and the increasing polarization along caste and religious lines influenced political mobilization and voting patterns.

Regional Parties’ Role in State Politics

The role of regional parties in Indian state politics cannot be understated. These parties have played a crucial role in articulating regional issues that national parties often overlooked. Over time, these regional parties have shifted from focusing solely on state-level issues to also influencing national policies. In states like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, regional parties have become powerful players, often controlling the political narrative and affecting the direction of national politics as well. The increasing strength of these parties can be attributed to the changing socio-political dynamics in the post-Congress era, where regional and caste-based identities have come to the forefront.

Key Developments in Electoral Politics

Several key developments in Indian electoral politics can be observed:

Role of Pan Parties: National parties like Congress and BJP have historically dominated electoral politics. However, since the 1990s, BJP, under the leadership of the National Democratic Front (NDA), has been able to form governments both at the center and in several states, showcasing the changing dynamics of the political landscape.
End of Congress System: The decline of Congress's hegemony has led to the emergence of new political formations. As the Congress party's ideological flexibility weakened, regional parties gained ground by addressing specific regional and caste-based demands.
Coalition Politics: The 1990s marked a shift towards coalition politics. The emergence of multiple political parties with differing ideologies led to the formation of coalitions, with opposition parties sometimes joining forces despite ideological differences. This was a significant shift from the earlier Congress-dominated politics.

5.4 First Democratic Upsurge

Universal Adult Franchise (1950-1952): The adoption of universal adult franchise in India, implemented during the first general elections in 1951-1952, was a transformative moment for Indian democracy. This reform, which allowed every citizen to vote irrespective of caste, gender, or wealth, was a significant milestone that invited a surge in democratic participation.
Challenges Faced (1947-1950s): Post-independence, India faced several challenges such as the tragedy of partition, the integration of princely states, widespread poverty, food insecurity, and the task of educating a large illiterate population. Despite these difficulties, the enthusiasm for democracy was evident, and this period marked the beginning of the country’s democratic journey.
Voter Turnout (1951-1967): The voter turnout during the first Lok Sabha elections in 1951-1952 was 45.7%. This turnout increased to 60.5% in subsequent elections, indicating a rising political participation and engagement of Indian citizens with the democratic process.
Congress Party Dominance (1950s-1960s): The Congress party, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, dominated Indian politics from the 1950s to the 1960s. This period is often referred to as the "Congress System," where Congress maintained significant control over both the national and state-level politics. Congress received 45% of the total vote share in the four Lok Sabha elections from 1952 to 1967.
Congress System and Charismatic Leadership (1950s-1967): Rajani Kothari’s theory of the "Congress System" emphasized the consensus within the party and the interrelationship between the high command and grassroots politics. Nehru’s charisma played a crucial role in sustaining Congress dominance, but after his death in 1967, the party began to experience a decline.
Decline of Congress (1967): The first significant defeat for Congress occurred in the 1967 state elections. This marked the beginning of a decline in the Congress's dominance, with regional forces and caste-based movements gaining strength. The erosion of Congress support was linked to the development of non-Congress sentiments and the collapse of the party’s executive leadership system.

5.5 Second Democratic Upsurge

Backward Caste Mobilization (1960s-1970s): The second democratic upsurge occurred during the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the increased political mobilization of backward castes in India. These groups began to vote strategically and in a more organized manner, shifting the political landscape away from the dominance of the Congress party. Yogendra Yadav’s analysis of this shift emphasizes the significance of caste-based political engagement.
De-alignment (1970s): The second upsurge also saw the process of de-alignment, where voters began moving away from their traditional party loyalties, particularly towards Congress. This shift was caused by a growing disillusionment with Congress's failure to address regional issues and the inability to fulfill its promises to diverse social groups. This period was characterized by a decline in party loyalty and a change in voter behavior, as voters began to focus more on issues and regional identity.
Downfall of Congress (1970s-1980s): By the 1970s, Congress's control started to weaken both at the state and national levels. The downfall of Congress was further accelerated by the rise of opposition parties and the emergence of regional political forces. This culminated in the formation of the Janata government in 1977, which marked the end of Congress's one-party dominance.
Janata Government (1977-1979): The Janata Party, a coalition of opposition forces, came to power in 1977 after Indira Gandhi’s emergency rule (1975-1977). However, the Janata Party government was short-lived due to internal conflicts and the inability to maintain unity among the coalition members. Despite its failure, this period marked the emergence of a two-party system, with Congress and Janata forming the main political opposition.
Market Polity (1970s-1980s): Morris Jones described this period as a "Market Polity," where political parties became increasingly competitive and interdependent. Political compromise became essential as parties with differing ideologies had to come together to form coalitions, reflecting a shift from the Congress-dominated system to a more fragmented and diverse political landscape.
Emergence of Regional Parties (1970s-1980s): Regional parties such as the Telugu Desam, Assam Gana Parishad, and Sikkim Sangram Parishad emerged in response to the Congress party's failure to address regional issues effectively. These parties began to mobilize voters around local and regional concerns, contributing to the fragmentation of Indian politics.

5.6 Third Democratic Upsurge

Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (1991): The third democratic upsurge coincided with India's economic liberalization in 1991. This period marked the shift towards privatization, globalization, and economic reforms under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao’s leadership. The introduction of these policies reshaped the political and electoral landscape, with economic issues becoming a central part of electoral campaigns.
Mandal, Mandir, and Masjid (1990s): The rise of caste-based politics became prominent during this period, particularly with the Mandal Commission’s recommendations on reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The Mandir (Ram Mandir) movement and the Masjid (Babri Masjid) issue also played significant roles in shaping the electoral politics of the 1990s. These issues polarized voters along religious and caste lines, further influencing voting behavior.
Re-alignment of Voters (1990s-2000s): The third upsurge saw the re-alignment of voters, as voters once again started associating with political parties based on issues rather than loyalty to a single party. The re-alignment was largely based on regional identity, caste-based politics, and economic policies. The youth and women voters also played a significant role in reshaping the political landscape.
Coalition Politics (1989-2014): The 1990s and early 2000s saw the rise of coalition politics, with no single party able to secure a clear majority. This period marked the era of multi-party alliances, where regional parties became crucial in forming both state and central governments. Coalition governments at the center, such as those led by the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and National Democratic Alliance (NDA), characterized this phase.
BJP’s Rise (2014): In 2014, after two decades of coalition governments, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) led by Narendra Modi emerged as the dominant force, securing a majority on its own in the Lok Sabha elections. This signaled the end of the coalition era at the center and the return of a strong, single-party-led government, marking a shift in India’s political trajectory.
Youth and Women Voters (1990s-2000s): This period saw the increasing participation of youth and women voters, who began voting based on issues such as economic reforms, social justice, and development. The younger generation, in particular, showed a marked shift in voting behavior, often voting for parties based on their agendas rather than ideological loyalties.
Instability of Coalition Governments (1989-2014): The period between 1989 and 2014 saw a series of unstable coalition governments, with parties of differing ideologies coming together to form alliances. This often led to fragile governments that were unable to maintain long-term political stability. The instability of coalition politics was reflected in the frequent changes in government and the rise of new political forces at the state and national levels.

Conclusion:

The document traces the significant evolution of electoral politics in India, highlighting key shifts that have shaped its democratic landscape. Initially, during the 1950s and 60s, Congress dominated the political scene, creating a one-party system bolstered by its legacy in the freedom struggle. However, by 1967, this dominance began to wane, marking the onset of the second phase. This period saw the rise of regional parties, driven largely by caste and regional identities, which challenged Congress’s stronghold and gave birth to a two-party system in several states. The 1990s ushered in the third phase of Indian electoral politics, characterized by coalition politics, where regional parties not only influenced state elections but also played a vital role in shaping national governance. This period also witnessed the emergence of issues such as caste, class, and religion influencing voter behavior, with parties adapting to these changes. By 2014, the BJP, through the National Democratic Alliance, managed to form a ‘one-party-led coalition government’ at both the national and state levels. In conclusion, India's electoral politics has evolved from Congress dominance to a fragmented multi-party system, with regional parties exerting considerable influence, reflecting the country's diverse socio-economic and regional dynamics.