Introduction
The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate brought significant political, economic, and social changes. These changes included reforms in taxation systems, the introduction of new technologies, and advancements in urbanization and trade networks. Historians like Mohammad Habib argue that this period marked an "urban revolution," with considerable growth in craft production and commerce.
Key interlinked developments during this period were:
- Expansion in the size and number of towns.
- Increased craft production due to new techniques.
- Corresponding growth in trade and commerce.
Similarly, the Vijayanagara Empire in South India, flourishing from the 14th to 16th centuries, developed a monetized economy, stimulated trade, and integrated artisan production into a broader commercial framework. The economic transformations contributed to social mobility and a robust network of urban centers.
Agricultural Production under the Delhi Sultans
Crops and Irrigation
Agriculture remained the backbone of the economy, with extensive land availability. Ibn Battuta describes the cultivation of Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) crops.
- Kharif Crops: Millets (kuzru, qal, shamakh), pulses (mung, moth, lobiya), sugarcane, rice, and sesame.
- Rabi Crops: Wheat, barley, chickpeas, and lentils.
Cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and oilseeds were also widely cultivated. Fruits like mango and grapes gained prominence, with Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq promoting orchards and grape cultivation near Delhi.
Irrigation Systems
- Wells and canals were the primary sources of irrigation.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq provided loans to farmers to dig wells.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq constructed canals, such as the Rajab-wah and Ulugh-khani canals, to improve irrigation.
Agrarian Policies
- Alauddin Khalji: Introduced land measurement for tax assessment and increased the state’s share to 50%. Taxes like Gharai (house tax) and Charai (grazing tax) were imposed.
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Expanded taxation to newly conquered regions like Gujarat and Malwa, introducing new imposts (abwab), which led to agrarian unrest.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq: Reversed some policies by abolishing additional cesses and introducing Jiziya (a tax on non-Muslims).
Rural Aristocracy
The rural aristocracy consisted of rais, ranas, and military commanders (rawats), with intermediaries like khuts, muqaddams, and chowdharis collecting revenue.
- Alauddin Khalji curtailed their privileges, transforming them into state officials.
- By Firuz Shah’s time, intermediaries were referred to as zamindars, representing the superior landed class.
Technology
Technological innovations in agriculture, textiles, military, and construction were pivotal in shaping the economy under the Delhi Sultanate.
Agriculture
The introduction of the Persian wheel (saqia) revolutionized irrigation, especially in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. The use of gear mechanisms and animal power further improved water-lifting devices.
Textile Industry
- Tools like the spinning wheel and cotton carder’s bow significantly boosted textile production.
- Indigo dye production saw technological improvements, enhancing the quality of textiles.
Construction and Metallurgy
- Use of lime and gypsum mortar allowed the construction of durable structures like arches, domes, and vaults.
- Techniques like tinning copper vessels were introduced for cooking purposes.
- The art of paper manufacturing emerged, aiding the growth of knowledge transmission.
Maritime Technology
The use of the magnetic compass facilitated navigation, promoting overseas trade.
Urbanization
The Delhi Sultanate witnessed rapid urbanization, driven by technological advancements, expanding trade, and the iqta system, which promoted administrative towns.
Institutions Promoting Urban Growth
- Khanqahs: State-supported Sufi hospices that provided lodging, food, and financial aid, attracting travelers and scholars.
- Serais: Rest houses for merchants and travelers, often surrounded by police posts (thanas) that later developed into towns.
Cities and Bazaars
- Delhi became the largest city in the Islamic world, evolving into a cosmopolitan center. Prominent bazaars included:
- Bazaar-i-Bazazan (dealers' market).
- Bazaar-i-Chaharsu (square marketplaces).
- The cities of Cambay (Gujarat) and Multan emerged as major hubs for international trade.
Social Mobility
Urban centers facilitated social mobility:
- Artisans and craftsmen prospered in karkhanas (workshops).
- Slaves trained in specialized crafts attained high positions.
- Groups like Afghans, Kalals (liquor-brewers), and Kambos (peasants) moved up the social ladder.
Trade and Commerce
Delhi Sultanate
- Overland Trade: Connected Central Asia, Persia, and China through routes like Multan-Quetta. Goods like silk, spices, and cotton textiles were traded.
- Maritime Trade: Indian ports like Lahri Bandar (Sindh) and Cambay (Gujarat) connected to the Persian Gulf and China. Major exports included cotton, rice, indigo, spices, and teak-wood.
The Sultanate’s trade networks fostered economic prosperity and monetization.
Vijayanagara Kingdom
- Vijayanagara’s inland trade routes connected major centers like Ayodhya, Tirupati, and Pulicat.
- Ports like Pulicat and Motupalli became crucial for maritime trade.
- Exports included cotton textiles, copper, rosewater, and vermilion, with Persia, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia as key trade partners.
Monetization
Delhi Sultanate
The Sultanate introduced a multi-metallic currency system:
- Gold Tankas: High-value coins used for elite transactions.
- Silver Tankas: Introduced by Iltutmish, valued at 1 tola (169.8 grains).
- Copper and Billon Coins: Smaller denominations like jital and gani facilitated daily transactions.
Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, token currency experiments failed due to counterfeiting, but the circulation of coins expanded.
Vijayanagara Empire
- The gold hon/varaha (3.4g) served as the main currency, with fractional denominations like fanam and tara (silver).
- Coins featured Hindu deities on one side and royal names in Devanagari script on the other.
Crafts and Artisans
Vijayanagara Period
The demand for textiles and metal goods increased, leading to:
- Weaver Communities (Kaikkolar): Produced elite textiles and gained prominence as donors in temples.
- Smiths: Produced tools, weapons, and gold ornaments, improving their social status.
Delhi Sultanate
- Skilled craftsmen produced textiles, paper, glassware, and metallurgical goods like Damascus steel and tinned copper vessels.
- Artisans learned new techniques, such as glazed ware production and arcuate construction methods.
Conclusion
The Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara period witnessed significant economic transformations marked by:
- Advances in agriculture, technology, and craft production.
- Urbanization and growth of trade networks.
- Increasing monetization of the economy.
These developments fostered social mobility, with artisans, merchants, and marginalized groups benefiting from the expanding economic opportunities.