Introduction
The Bhakti movement, which emphasized personal devotion to God for salvation (moksha), developed over centuries across regions. Rooted in scriptures like the Bhagavad Gita and Narada Bhakti Sutra, it initially emerged in South India (6th–10th centuries A.D.) and later spread to other parts of the subcontinent.
This movement, accompanied by the rise of cults like the Jagannatha Cult in Orissa and the Warkari Cult in Maharashtra, became popular among the masses, including marginalized groups. A unique aspect of the Bhakti period was the active participation of women saints who defied patriarchal norms and created spiritual spaces for themselves.
The Jagannatha Cult
Legitimization of Medieval Kingdoms
The Jagannatha cult in Puri, Orissa, exemplified how religion became intertwined with state authority. According to H. Kulke, medieval Hindu kings used three ritual countermeasures to legitimize their rule:
- Patronage of pilgrimage centers (tirthas),
- Supporting Brahmins,
- Establishing imperial temples as state cults.
The Jagannatha Temple at Puri symbolized both vertical legitimation (integration of local deities) and horizontal legitimation (uniting various sub-regions under one divine authority). This strategy allowed rulers to consolidate power and gain recognition beyond their temporal domains.
Development of the Jagannatha Cult
The Somavamsi dynasty played an initial role in associating the deity Nilamadhava (an earlier form of Jagannatha) with Orissa's religious traditions.
- Codaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty (12th century) promoted Vaishnavism and constructed the Jagannatha temple at Puri.
- In 1230, his successor Anangabhima III dedicated his entire empire to Lord Jagannatha and proclaimed himself as the deity’s viceroy (rauta) and son (putra).
- Anangabhima introduced Balabhadra into the divine trinity, alongside Jagannatha and Subhadra, influenced by Pancaratra philosophy.
The Pancaratra system emphasized Krishna’s relationship with his brother Balarama (a form of Shiva) and his sister Ekanamsa (a form of Durga). This re-interpretation integrated major regional deities into one state cult.
Car Festival and Priestly Authority
The Car Festival (Rath Yatra) is a hallmark of the Jagannatha cult, during which the deities—Jagannatha, Subhadra, and Balabhadra—are placed on large chariots and taken through the streets to their summer residence at the Gundica Temple.
- The king of Puri or his representative initiated the festival by cleaning the chariots, symbolizing royal servitude to the deity.
- The priests of Puri wielded considerable power, supported by royal protection and economic patronage. However, tensions existed between the Brahmin and non-Brahmin priests, as well as with the rulers, over temple administration.
The Jagannatha cult thus exemplified the transformation of a tribal deity into a state deity, cementing Orissa’s kingship ideology and unifying the region under a shared religious identity.
The Warkari Panth
Origin and Philosophy
The Warkari Panth, which emerged in Maharashtra during the 13th–14th centuries, is a devotional tradition centered on Vitthal (Vithoba) of Pandharpur. Vitthal is depicted as a young boy standing on a brick (vitha), reflecting aspects of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and folk traditions.
The movement was initiated by saints like Namdev and Jnaneshwar, who emphasized:
- Equality among castes, classes, and genders,
- Simple devotion to Vitthal, without rituals or intermediaries,
- Participation in Wari (annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur).
The Warkari movement rejected caste hierarchies and encouraged inclusiveness. Pilgrims wore simple Tulsi bead malas and adhered to principles of vegetarianism and non-violence.
Saints and Social Composition
The Warkari movement drew followers from diverse social backgrounds: artisans, farmers, untouchables, and women. Some notable saints included:
- Namdev: A Shudra tailor who composed devotional abhangs and whose works were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
- Jnaneshwar: A Brahmin saint who wrote the Jnaneshvari, a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
- Chokhamela: A Mahar saint who critiqued social inequality and untouchability in his songs.
- Tukaram: A Shudra saint known for his powerful devotional poetry.
Women saints such as Muktabai, Janabai, Soyrabai, and Bahinabai played a significant role in the Warkari tradition, expressing their spiritual aspirations through abhangs.
Women Saints in the Warkari Panth
The Warkari movement offered a spiritual space for women who were otherwise marginalized by patriarchal structures. These women saints, from diverse social backgrounds, defied societal norms while articulating their struggles and devotion through poetry.
- Muktabai (Brahmin): Emphasized spiritual teachings and wrote dialogues with other saints.
- Janabai (Shudra): A maidservant who depicted Vitthal as her companion and helper in household chores.
- Soyrabai (Mahar): Criticized untouchability but accepted patriarchal norms, identifying herself as Chokhamela’s wife.
- Kanhopatra (Devadasi): Repented for her past life and dedicated herself entirely to Vitthal.
- Bahinabai (Brahmin): Balanced her devotion to Vitthal with her duties as a wife, reflecting the tensions of patriarchy.
The women saints viewed Vitthal as a companion, parent, or beloved, fostering an egalitarian relationship with the divine.
Gender Roles: Women Bhaktas
Akka Mahadevi
A 12th-century saint of the Virashaiva movement in Karnataka, Akka Mahadevi rejected social norms by renouncing marriage and embracing nudity as a symbol of spiritual freedom. She expressed her intense love for Chenna Mallikarjuna (Shiva) through her vachanas (Kannada devotional verses).
Lal Dey
A 14th-century mystic from Kashmir, Lal Dey (Lalla) walked away from an oppressive marriage to become a wandering ascetic. Her vakhs (Kashmiri aphoristic verses) rejected caste, rituals, and patriarchy, emphasizing God as an inner consciousness (Sahaj).
Mirabai
A 16th-century Rajput princess, Mirabai defied social norms and renounced her royal life to devote herself to Krishna. Her padas (songs) reflected her spiritual longing, rebellion against patriarchal control, and desire for personal freedom.
Conclusion
The Jagannatha cult and Warkari movement represent powerful religious traditions that integrated spiritual devotion with social inclusivity. Women saints like Akka Mahadevi, Lal Dey, and Mirabai challenged patriarchal norms, creating limited but significant spaces for themselves within the Bhakti tradition. Their devotional poetry continues to resonate, inspiring generations with its spiritual depth and social critique.