The Tribes and Peasants - Colonialism and Nationalism in India | DocShare

Colonialism and Nationalism in IndiaChapter Unit

Introduction

The tribal and peasant communities in India, like many other sections of society, played a significant role in the Indian freedom struggle. While the urban nationalist movements led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru often took center stage, the contributions of rural India, particularly the tribal and peasant movements, were crucial in shaping the course of India's independence. These movements reflected the opposition to British rule, which, through its economic policies and social structures, had disrupted the lives and traditions of these communities.

The tribal communities were scattered across various regions of India, including Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, and also in South India, especially in Andhra Pradesh and the Godavari basin. Despite their relatively small proportion in the population (around 8%), these communities played a crucial role in the anti-colonial resistance.
British colonial policies, such as commercialization, forest laws, and taxation, led to the exploitation of tribal and peasant populations, provoking them to rise in resistance against the colonial state.

Tribal Movements

The term ‘tribe’ in India refers to communities that are distinct from the caste system but are deeply integrated into the broader social fabric of Indian society. Tribal people were primarily involved in agriculture, shifting cultivation, gathering, and worked as laborers in distant plantations, mines, and factories.

Tribal Integration into Mainstream Society:
While some tribes were isolated, most were part of Indian society as laborers and agricultural workers. Their struggles were often centered around economic exploitation by the British and land-grabbers from the plains.
Penetration of Outsiders:
With the advent of British rule and the commercialization of land, outsiders, including money lenders, traders, and land grabbers, began to encroach upon tribal lands. These groups, referred to as ‘dikus’ by the Santhals, were hated for their exploitation of tribal communities. The expansion of British control over forest areas and the imposition of laws restricted tribal access to forest resources, further heightening tensions.

Tribal Revolts and Uprisings

Several tribal uprisings took place during British rule, with many tribal groups rising against exploitation, loss of land, and oppressive policies. These revolts were often violent and driven by the desire to restore their traditional ways of life and resist British domination.

The Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856):
One of the first major tribal revolts was the Santhal Rebellion, led by the Santhal tribes in Bihar and Bengal. They rose up against the exploitation of land by zamindars, moneylenders, and the British. The Santhals were enraged by the debt they had incurred and the increasing encroachment of outsiders onto their land. Their revolt was brutally suppressed, but it marked a significant moment in the struggle against British rule.
The Konds and the Koya Tribes:
- In Orissa, the Konds led a rebellion against the British, inspired by religious leaders and tribal chiefs. The Koyas in Andhra Pradesh also led revolts against the increasing taxes and exploitation by both the British and local feudal landlords.
- These tribal uprisings were part of the larger nationalist struggle and helped to mobilize indigenous populations against colonial control.
The Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900):
One of the most dramatic tribal uprisings occurred under the leadership of Birsa Munda, a young tribal leader who led the Munda tribes of the Chotanagpur region in Bihar. Birsa and his followers sought to restore tribal customs and resist British control, particularly the system of land allotment and forced labor imposed by the colonial administration.
- Birsa Munda became a symbol of resistance, and his movement helped raise awareness about the exploitation of tribal people. His leadership and mobilization efforts were significant, though he was captured and died in British custody in 1900.
Other Movements:
Other smaller movements, such as the Naikda Revolt (1868), the Kacha Naga Revolt (1882), and the Konda Dora Revolt (1900), were also driven by tribal resistance to British exploitation. These movements varied in scale but shared common grievances such as land alienation, taxation, and the imposition of new colonial laws.

Tribal Responses to Colonial Policies

The British colonial administration implemented various policies that impacted tribal communities:

Forest Laws:
British control over forest zones for revenue purposes had a detrimental impact on tribal communities who relied on forests for livelihood. Policies that restricted shifting cultivation, limited access to timber, and controlled grazing resulted in the marginalization of tribal communities.
Erosion of Tribal Land Ownership:
The British legal system introduced private property laws, which undermined traditional tribal landholding systems like the Khuntkatti tenure. This eroded communal land ownership, leading to the displacement of tribes and fueling resistance movements.
Commercialization and Land Alienation:
The intrusion of outsiders in the form of moneylenders and land grabbers intensified during British rule, leading to further exploitation of tribal communities. The intrusion of moneylenders, who often took land as collateral, created significant economic distress among tribes.

Peasant Movements

Peasant movements in India were an integral part of the larger national struggle against British colonial rule. These movements arose due to the harsh economic policies and exploitation faced by the peasants, who were burdened by high taxes and exploitative landlord practices. The peasant struggles were driven by the need for fair land distribution, lower taxes, and the abolition of the feudal system.

Early Peasant Rebellions (1857 War of Independence):
The 1857 War of Independence, though primarily a military uprising, also had significant peasant participation, particularly in the regions of Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. While the peasants were not the primary forces behind the mutiny, the high taxes and economic exploitation under the British contributed to widespread resentment and support for the rebellion.
The Rise of Peasant Movements:
The Kisan Sabha (Peasant Association) movement gained significant momentum during the early 20th century. These movements were aimed at addressing issues like high rents, excessive taxes, and the landlord system that exploited peasants. Leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati played a key role in organizing peasant movements across India.
- Bihar Kisan Sabha (1929):
  Swami Sahajanand Saraswati founded the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in 1929 to fight against the exploitation of peasants by zamindars (landlords). The organization aimed to protect the land rights of peasants and reduce the power of landlords who controlled agricultural land. The BPKS became one of the first significant peasant movements in India and later spread to other parts of the country.
Peasant Struggles Post-1920s:
By the 1920s, many peasant groups became disillusioned with the Indian National Congress, which was more focused on constitutional reforms and political negotiations with the British. They felt that the Congress leadership, which was largely aligned with the zamindars and elite interests, was not addressing their grievances adequately. This led to a new wave of radicalism in peasant movements.
Rise of the Communist Influence:
The Communist Party in India, along with other socialist groups, played an important role in transforming peasant movements into more militant and organized struggles. They emphasized the need for class struggle and saw the peasants as a major force in the fight for independence. Communist ideology began to inspire several peasant revolts, as they sought to replace the feudal system with a socialist and agrarian economy.

Notable Peasant Movements

Several peasant movements across India played a crucial role in the anti-colonial struggle, particularly in challenging the economic exploitation of the peasants.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
The Champaran Satyagraha, led by Mahatma Gandhi, was one of the first major successes of non-violent resistance by peasants. In Champaran, Bihar, indigo farmers were being forced by European planters to grow indigo on their land under exploitative terms. Gandhi’s intervention led to a victory for the peasants, forcing the British to address their grievances and significantly reducing the exploitation of farmers. This marked the first time Gandhi's method of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) was used for a peasant struggle.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
In Kheda, Gujarat, peasants were facing severe economic hardship due to crop failure and a tax increase. The British government refused to reduce taxes despite the dire conditions. Gandhi led a non-cooperation movement, where the peasants refused to pay taxes, and with the support of local leaders, including Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, they successfully secured a reduction in taxes and the return of confiscated lands.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928):
The Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928 is considered one of the most significant peasant struggles in India. The farmers of Bardoli, Gujarat, were burdened by a 30% tax increase during floods and famine, leading to extreme poverty. Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the movement, where farmers refused to pay the increased tax. After much resistance, the British government eventually reduced the tax and returned the confiscated property. This success elevated Patel’s status as a leader of peasants and a prominent figure in the Indian independence movement.
Tebhaga Movement (1946):
The Tebhaga Movement was a major peasant struggle in Bengal, primarily involving sharecroppers who were forced to give half of their harvest to the landlords. The Kisan Sabha, led by the Communist Party of India, demanded that the sharecroppers pay only one-third of the harvest instead of half. This movement gained widespread support and became one of the most significant peasant uprisings in post-World War II India.
Telangana Peasant Movement (1946-1951):
The Telangana Rebellion in Hyderabad was one of the most militant peasant struggles against feudal oppression. The peasants, led by the Communist Party of India, revolted against the Nizam’s feudal rule and demanded the abolition of bonded labor and exorbitant taxes. The movement was eventually suppressed by the Indian Army, but it played a crucial role in mobilizing peasants and pushing the Congress to adopt more pro-peasant policies.

Peasant Movements and the Role of Congress

The relationship between the Indian National Congress and the peasant movements was complex. While the Congress, under Gandhi’s leadership, launched several successful peasant movements, it often failed to adequately address peasant grievances related to land reform and economic exploitation. This led to a growing disillusionment among peasants, particularly those in rural areas, who felt that the Congress leadership, which was largely aligned with zamindars (landlords), was not truly representing their interests.

Failure to Address Peasant Concerns:
- The Congress’s elite leadership was often seen as too focused on urban issues and constitutional reforms, leaving peasants' issues largely unresolved. In the 1920s, peasant leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and Baba Ramchandra began to voice concerns over the Congress's failure to act on land reforms and the exploitation of peasants by both zamindars and the British colonial government.
- The Congress Party’s failure to fully support the peasants in their struggle for land rights and economic justice led to the formation of independent peasant organizations, such as the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS), which became a key force in radicalizing peasant movements.