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Colonialism and Nationalism in IndiaChapter Unit

Introduction

This chapter explores the nationalist movements in India, focusing on the emergence of moderates and extremists during the Partition of Bengal in 1905. During this period, two key organizations were formed: the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League. These movements laid the foundation for the struggle for Purna Swaraj (complete independence). We will discuss the origins, methods, and impact of nationalist ideas in shaping the Indian National Movement.

Phases of the Nationalist Movement

Emergence of the Indian National Congress (INC)

The roots of Indian nationalism began to take shape in the latter half of the 1800s under the influence of colonialism. As the effects of colonial rule deepened, groups and individuals emerged who began to envision an Indian nation governed by Indians themselves.

  • Foundation of the Indian National Congress (1885): The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885. The formation of the INC is viewed differently by historians:

    • R.P. Dutt believed the British encouraged its formation to provide a platform for Indian discontent and manage the growing resentment.
    • Bipan Chandra and modern historians argue that the Indians behind the Congress were not mere pawns but were intent on using British encouragement to achieve their own goals.

    According to R.P. Dutt, Indian Nationalism traces its origins to the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 and subsequent groups like the British Indian Society (1843) and the British Indian Association (1851). These early organizations expressed dissatisfaction with the British economic and administrative policies, calling for reforms in revenue systems, trade, and access to higher administrative services.

  • Indian National Congress’s Early Years (1885): By the time the Indian National Congress (INC) convened in 1885, Indian intellectuals realized that there were shared goals for which all Indians needed to struggle. The Indian National Congress sought national unity and nationalism, countering the British view that India was merely a collection of different races and religions. Key leaders like Surendranath Banerjee and Tilak argued that India was a "nation in the making."

    • The first president of the Congress, W.C. Bonnerjee, stated that the Congress aimed at the fuller development and consolidation of national unity.
    • Congress leaders like Ananda Mohan Bose (president of the 1883 National Conference) saw the Congress as the first step towards the national parliament of India.
    • The Congress Sessions were rotated among different parts of India to maintain unity and promote communal harmony.
    • Dadabhai Naoroji stressed that the Congress should focus on political aspirations and self-rule (Swaraj) rather than social reforms, thus limiting its scope to national issues.
Congress Representing Indian Aspiration

By the time of the first Congress session in 1885, there was a recognition that national unity was the key to India’s political struggle. The idea of a unified India, despite its vast diversity, was championed by leaders like Surendranath Banerjee and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. These leaders pushed for the idea that India was a unified nation with a shared destiny.

  • Early Nationalist Leaders’ Vision: The Congress leadership, especially in the early years, focused on promoting unity in diversity and national integration. They believed that by working together, Indians could create a stronger voice in their dealings with the British.

    • The Congress was careful not to take up social reform issues that were seen as divisive; instead, it focused on political unity and national issues.
    • The Indu Prakash newspaper, based in Bombay, saw the first Congress session as the beginning of a new life for the country, emphasizing the need to unite diverse peoples under common goals.

  • National Unity and the Congress: To foster national unity, it was decided that the Congress sessions would rotate among different regions of India. The president of each Congress session would come from a different region to maintain balance and prevent regional dominance.

    • Resolutions passed at these sessions had to be approved by both Hindu and Muslim delegates to promote communal harmony.
Liberal Constitutionalists

The early Congress leaders were liberal constitutionalists who believed in peaceful constitutional methods to attain their goals. They adopted moderate methods, emphasizing petitioning, memorials, and public meetings as tools of resistance, while avoiding direct confrontation with the British. They were not seeking complete independence initially, but rather sought reforms within the British system of rule.

  • Political Action and Early Tactics:
    • The Congress leaders initially focused on organizing the educated classes, believing that once they were united, they could exert political pressure on the British government. This strategy was called the politicization of the educated middle class.
    • W.C. Bonnerjee, the first Congress president, emphasized the importance of personal interaction between the Indian leaders and the British government to build mutual respect and understanding.
    • The early Congress leaders believed that the British government would respond to Indian demands for political rights and reforms out of a sense of justice.

Swadeshi and Radicals

By the turn of the century, the moderate phase of the Indian National Congress began to give way to the rise of the extremist phase. This shift was primarily a response to the failure of moderates to achieve significant political concessions and the growing discontent among various sections of Indian society, particularly the youth.

  • Emergence of Extremist Nationalism: The growing economic misery of the peasants and workers, coupled with the political intransigence of the British government, led to the rise of radical voices in Indian politics. These radicals were impatient with the slow pace of reforms and the failure of moderate leaders to extract meaningful concessions from the British.

    • Economic Conditions: The peasants, workers, and educated youth found themselves increasingly marginalized, and the colonial economy was detrimental to their livelihoods. Famines, taxation, and unemployment exacerbated their suffering. Meanwhile, young students and intellectuals, facing an uncertain future with little opportunity for advancement, grew disillusioned with the moderates' approach.

  • The Role of Religious Revivalism: In this environment, religious revivalism gained traction, especially among the Hindu population. Leaders like Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who wrote the hymn “Vande Mataram”, popularized the image of India as the mother goddess, which helped to galvanize public sentiment and create a sense of nationalist pride.

    • The Hindu revivalist movement was influenced by the ideas of the Vedas, Upanishads, and other ancient scriptures, which were seen as symbols of India’s cultural supremacy. This revivalism not only redefined the cultural identity of India but also inspired youthful action and sacrifice for the nation.

  • Shift in Political Strategy: The Swadeshi Movement, which had its roots in the opposition to the partition of Bengal, became the focal point of the nationalist struggle. The movement involved a widespread boycott of foreign goods and the promotion of Swadeshi (self-reliance). This marked a radical shift from the moderate focus on constitutional reform to direct mass action.

    • Swadeshi Movement: The Swadeshi movement took on a mass character, with boycotts of British goods, picketing of shops, and the establishment of indigenous industries. The boycott was not just a political tool but also a cultural and emotional expression of resistance against British colonial rule.
    • The movement led to the creation of Swadeshi goods and the establishment of factories to reduce dependency on British imports. The Tata Steel Company, which began operations during this time, is an example of Indian self-reliance in the face of colonial exploitation.

Demand for Purna Swaraj

As the extremist phase gained momentum, the demand for complete independence (Purna Swaraj) emerged as a central theme in Indian nationalist politics. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai began to call for full independence from British rule, in contrast to the moderate leaders who sought only partial reforms and self-governance.

  • Key Leaders of the Extremists:

    • Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Known as the "father of Indian unrest", Tilak was the most vocal proponent of Purna Swaraj. He believed that full freedom could only be achieved through mass mobilization and direct action, including the boycott of British goods and institutions.
    • Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh were also prominent leaders who advocated for complete independence and a more militant approach.

  • Differences Between Moderates and Extremists:

    • The moderates believed that they could achieve their goals through peaceful petitions, memorials, and appealing to the British sense of justice.
    • The extremists, however, were frustrated with the slow pace of progress and the British government's reluctance to grant meaningful reforms. They believed that the Indian masses needed to rise up and demand complete independence through direct action.

  • Swaraj and National Education:

    • The extremists articulated a vision of Swaraj (self-rule) that was based on the complete economic and political independence of India.
    • They also focused on National Education, advocating for an educational system that would promote Indian culture and values, free from British influence. The goal was to create a generation of Indians who would be self-reliant and proud of their heritage.

Moderates vs. Extremists

By 1908, the moderate phase of the nationalist movement had started to decline, as the extremists began to gain more influence. This shift in political tactics was partially due to the British government's repressive measures against nationalist leaders and movements.

  • Repressive Measures and British Strategy:

    • The British responded to the rise of the extremists with a combination of repression and divide-and-rule tactics. They deported or arrested leaders like Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai in an attempt to suppress the growing nationalist sentiment.
    • The British also tried to divide the nationalist movement by exacerbating differences between the moderates and extremists. They encouraged sectarian and religious divisions, hoping to weaken the unified national struggle.

  • Failure of the Extremists' Approach:

    • Despite their strong rhetoric and boycott campaigns, the extremists were unable to achieve immediate success. The British government repressed their movements with arrests, trials, and mass expulsions from educational institutions.
    • The lack of mass support, especially from the rural areas, and the limited appeal of their radical ideas led to the decline of the extremist phase after 1908.

  • Surat Split (1907):

    • The moderates and extremists finally split during the Surat Congress of 1907. The extremists, led by Tilak, demanded more radical resolutions, including the boycott of foreign goods, while the moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Surendranath Banerjee, wanted a more conciliatory approach towards the British.
    • This split marked a turning point in the Congress, as the extremists were sidelined, and the moderate leaders regained control of the organization.

Formation of the Muslim League

The Muslim League was formed on December 30, 1906, under the leadership of Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. It was created to represent the political interests of Muslims in India and to protect their rights from what they perceived as the domination of Hindus in the nationalist movement.

  • Early Aims of the Muslim League:
    • The Muslim League initially aimed to promote the loyalty of Indian Muslims to the British government and ensure their political rights were recognized.
    • It called for separate electorates for Muslims in elections, a demand that would later lead to communal divisions in India.
    • The formation of the Muslim League marked the beginning of separatism in Indian politics, which would have lasting consequences in the partition of India in 1947.

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